A semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors, diodes, and transistors are fabricated is known as an integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called a chip, microchip or microelectronic circuit. An integrated circuit can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, logic gate, memory, microcontroller or microprocessor.
A semiconductor component (usually silicon crystal) forms the basis of all modern electronic devices. As its name implies, it is an integrated system of multiple miniaturized and interconnected components.
A complex web of semiconductor wafers, silicon, copper and other materials interconnects the additional components on the device. Each component is relatively small, usually microscopic, and the resultant circuit, the monolithic chip, is also tiny -- often only occupying a few square centimeters.
Computer processors are an example of an integrated circuit (IC), which contains millions or billions of transistors, capacitors, logic gates, etc., connected together to form a complex digital circuit.
The transistor is a combination of transfer and resistor that was invented in 1947, setting the stage for the modern age of computers.
A transistor, a capacitor, and a resistor were included in every circuit in the early days, and each transistor came in its own plastic package. Early ICs could only hold a few of these components -- wired together -- because of their large size.
The development of solid-state electronics enabled components to be made smaller over time.
The late 1950s saw the invention of devices that functioned as wires when thin metal paths were laid on them by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments, Inc., and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation. It was their solution to the problem of wiring between small electrical devices that led to the development of the modern integrated circuit.
Since the 1950s, ICs have advanced tremendously with faster speeds, more capacity, and smaller sizes.
Today's integrated circuits are unbelievably complex when compared to the early days, with billions of transistors and other components packed on a single small piece of material. Instead of simply mounting components on the silicon crystal, modern ICs are embedded directly into the silicon crystal.
A die is a combination of wafers that make up an IC. The semiconductor wafers that form the IC are fragile and include numerous intricate connections between layers.
Because dies are too small to solder and connect to millions or billions of components on a single chip, it is not possible to position and connect each component individually. Instead, designers use a special-purpose programming language to create small circuit elements and combine them to gradually increase the size and density of components on the chip to meet application requirements.
According to their intended application, ICs can be linear (analog), digital, or a combination of the two.
According to the input signal level, analog or linear ICs produce continuously variable outputs. These ICs can theoretically reach an infinite number of states. With this IC type, the output signal level is linearly related to the input signal level. A straight line should appear when instantaneous output and instantaneous input are plotted.
Most analog integrated circuits are quite simple and use only a few components.
The operational amplifier (op amp) is a common device used in these applications. Linear ICs are also used as audio-frequency (AF) and radio-frequency (RF) amplifiers. It is possible to program linear ICs to turn various devices on or off once a particular signal reaches a certain level.
The microprocessor is the most complicated type of IC, capable of performing billions of operations per second. It consists of the central processing unit (CPU) that runs the computer or the graphics processing unit (GPU), which renders images and videos in a computing device. According to instructions from the clock, every transistor in a microprocessor performs a specific logic function.
Transistors perform logic functions (e.g., calculations) when the clock changes state and the clock's frequency determines how fast these functions are performed.